History of atlantis

Considered a lost continent, Atlantis fishing various scientific speculation. Fact or myth? Atlantis is an intriguing mystery to scientists, and the spritualis to trace the progress of human civilization again, it is said, is lost. At least, thousands of books have been written particulars legend. In the beginning was Plato (427-347 BC), Greek philosopher, noted a story about the lost continent in two of his works, Timaeus and Critias.
Both are the last works of Plato, written in 347 BC. In the same year Plato died. Narrated in both works, the Atlantis is a city with high civilization and technology is very advanced. Atlantis, Plato said, had a great maritime power, and being in front of the "Pillars of Hercules." The ground was fertile, prosperous people. He was a kind of heaven on earth, whose territory covers western Europe to Africa. Plato said Atlantis was about 9,000 years before the present school of Solon, or 9600 years before Plato's time to live. The triumph of Atlantis, Plato said, began to fade after a failed master of Athens, the land of the gods and goddesses. Disaster hit the island of Atlantis that disappeared into the sea in a matter of days. The inhabitants who survived went looking for a new place. Atlantis eventually become a "paradise lost." Indeed, many people doubt the story's fairy-like Plato. But, as Alan Cameron described in the book "Greek Mythography in the Roman World" published by Oxford (2004), mythology is a pillar for the nation's cultural elite of Greece. Although many doubt its truth, but that story could be a reflection of certain events in the past. Atlantis, for example, be an interesting discussion after the Age of Enlightenment. There is a rebuttal, parody, until a scientific explanation. "It seems that only in modern times people take seriously the story of Atlantis," writes Cameron. Some call the story was inspired by the story of the past, such as the Thera eruption or the Trojan War. Or consider the claim that Plato also inspired a number of contemporary events in his time, such as the collapse of the dynasty in 373 BC Helike. Alternatively, the failure of the military invasion of Athens on the island of Sicily in the War of 415-413 BC. At the beginning of modern civilization, the story of Atlantis was revived by the authors of the flow in the Renaissance humanist Europe. One was Francis Bacon, who published an essay titled "New Atlantis" in 1627. In his writings, Bacon saw Atlantis as a utopian society that he called Bensalem. Located on the west coast of the Americas. Other authors did not want to lose. Olaus Rudbeck, through his writings in 1679, assume that Atlantis was in his native country, Sweden. The country is called Rudbeck as the beginning of the birth of civilization, including language. Famous British scientist, Sir Isaac Newton was the performance of opinion. In 1728, inventor of the theory of gravitation published a paper entitled "The Chronology of the Ancient Kingdoms Amended." Newton was also curious to learn the explanation related mythological Atlantis. Although no specific mention of Atlantis, Newton describes historical events in a number of places, which have a similar bright future version of Plato's Atlantis. For example, the triumph of the Century Ancient Greek, Egyptian Empire, Asuriah, Babylon, the Temple of Solomon, and the Persian Empire. Mythology of Atlantis also makes the Nazi regime in Germany disturbed. In 1938, a high-ranking Nazi special police, Heinrich Himmler, reportedly formed a team expedition to Tibet. You see, there is the story of Atlantis was built Aryans, ancestors of the Germans. The mission was a failure. Nazi belief of many scientists doubt it lately. The hunt trail in the archipelago, and speculation continued existence of Atlantis sought throughout the ages. Several works were born, and indicate specific areas allegedly part of a 'triumph of the Sunset' is. Indonesia is also included in the list of researchers and enthusiasts speculation Atlantis mythology. For example, Professor Arysio Santos of Brazil. He geologists and nuclear physicists. Then, there is a geneticist from Oxford, England, Professor Stephen Oppenheimer. Both are suspected of Indonesia bury the remains of 'Paradise Lost' is. Santos displays the map of Indonesia in his book published in 2005, "Atlantis: The Lost Continent Finally Found." Continent it may have been lost in most of Indonesia and the South China Sea, according to Santos' convictions. In the paper, he claims to have done comparative research, such as the condition of the region, weather, natural resources, volcanoes, and the lifestyle of local communities. In the book, he hypothesized, the archipelago was once Atlantis. For Santos, among other indications about the area. As stated by Plato, Atlantis was "larger than the combined Libya (North Africa) and Asia (Minor)". Indonesia, by Santos, is considered compatible with the character's geography. Video interviews Santos on YouTube pages, showing he had no doubt that Atlantis really existed, and not just a myth. Santos explains why scientists have so far failed to find Atlantis, and doubt the existence of the lost city. "Because they look in the wrong place. They look in the Sea of ​​Atlantis, "he said in an interview on YouTube, such as pages loaded Hubpages. Assumption that Atlantis was in the Indian Atlantis, is logical. However, it is not the right location. "Atlantis was in the Indian Ocean [Indonesia], in other parts of the earth," he said. In the eastern hemisphere that is, civilization began. However, he said, the Indian Ocean or South China Sea as a location for Atlantis is just a limitation. "It certainly in Indonesia," said Santos. Before the ice age ended 30,000 to 11,000 years ago, in Indonesia there is a large mainland. At that time sea level 150 meters lower than today. In that place of civilization. Meanwhile, the rest of the Earth from North Asia, Europe and North America was still covered in ice. The islands are scattered in Indonesia is considered as the summit of the mountain, and the plateau of a continent that sank due to rising sea levels, and amblesnya lowlands in the late Pleistocene Glacial Period. It happened around 11,600 years ago. "It was the same span of time in dialogue with Plato described his creation as offensive Atlantis," Santos wrote in the introduction in his book. Contrary to popular belief the investigators before or on the generation of Santos, he was optimistic that Indonesia, which is referred to as the legacy of Atlantis, became the forerunner of the birth of a number of ancient civilizations. The inhabitants of the region that survived from rising sea levels and volcanic eruptions eventually split up to find places. They "moved into the areas now called India, Southeast Asia, China, Polynesia, America, and the Near East," writes Santos. A similar explanation put forward a British writer, Stephen Oppenheimer, in the book "Eden in the East: The Drowned Continent of Southeast Asia" (1998). He wrote a continent that sank due to flash floods, and rising sea levels about 7,000 to 14,000 years ago. Areas that were submerged in what is now known as Southeast Asia. Oppenheimer called the sunken continent as Sundaland. The inhabitants who survived that time and then spread to various places to Europe, bringing their culture and lifestyle. That's why Oppenheimer assumed EuroAsia racial origins in Europe can be traced in Asia. Oppenheimer was convinced that the inhabitants of Sundaland at that time had advanced civilizations from other regions. "They've developed a pattern of subsistence, than just hunt animals into farming, gardening, fishing, trade and even across the ocean. All that was done before 5000 years ago, "the assumption of Oppenheimer's piece. This recorded history for the parent of modern human civilization derived from Egypt, the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. But, according to him, the ancestors of modern human civilization stem from the Malay who is often called Sundaland, or Indonesia. What is the evidence? "Indonesia first agricultural civilization existed from other agricultural civilization in the world," said Oppenheimer in his surgical discussions in Jakarta, October 2010. Sure, genetics expert opinion and the structure of human DNA from Oxford University, gave a different paradigm from the existing all along that the earliest civilization from the West. In contrast to Santos, Oppenheimer did not jump to conclusions Sundaland is Atlantis. He himself admits more research is needed, and hope there is collaboration with researchers in Indonesia, to explain the Sundaland is Heaven's Sunset. But, Oppenheimer believes Sundaland in the archipelago had a highly developed civilization in his time. Pseudoscience? Santos and Oppenheimer's opinion on the trail of Atlantis and Indonesia as the former center of civilization on the one hand inviting charm. But not all parties believe in the claims. Interestingly, it was Indonesia's own scientists criticized the view of the two foreign observers. Research Professor of Astronomy of the National Aeronautics and Space Institute (LAPAN), Thomas Djamaluddin, doubted the story of Atlantis. For Djamaluddin, the story of Atlantis was just a story, with minimal scientific value. In other words, the explanation of Atlantis that was brought to the researchers for this entry in pseudoscience, or pseudoscience. "This is not scientific. This is pseudoscience. Between stories with scientific fact that mixed in there, "said scientist Indonesia, Thomas Djamaluddin, in conversation with VIVAnews some time ago. But the word Djamaluddin, Atlantis is nothing more than just a legendary story written by Plato. "If it is used as the scientific facts of geological history, Plato was only based on her understanding. Plato did not mention the data, "explains Jamaladin. Graduate research graduate of Kyoto University, Japan, was also considered not to show the geological history of Indonesia is Atlantis. "This paper has been circulated Santos, a kind of long. That's just conjecture, "he said. Another rebuttal, for example, came from a senior geologist of BP Migas, Awang Satyana. In a book review show Santos, about two years ago, Awang said Santos did not present evidence and arguments geology. Sundaland, Awang said, is a submerged continental shelf stable 15000-11000 years ago by deglasiasi process due to climate change cycle. "Not by a volcanic eruption. Supervolcano eruption would likely lead to winter in the long run, "said Awang. Even Sundaland about human migration to the rest of the earth, said Awang, contrary to the evidence of modern human migration research in biomolecular engineering. Geologists from the University of Padjadjaran, Oki Oktariadi, reminding the alleged location of Atlantis is not just Indonesia. There are many regions like Andalusia, the island of Crete, Santorini, Cape Spartel, Cyprus, Malta, Ponza, Sardinia, Troy, and others. "The results of a recent study by Kimura's (2007) found some stone monuments under the waters of Yonaguni, Japan suspected remnants of the civilization of Atlantis or Lemuria," the exposure Oktariadi in a paper titled "Is Sundaland's Atlantis the Lost?" While the truth remains doubtful, for Oktariadi, the study had a positive value for Indonesia. At least, this country is better known internationally, especially among researchers in various fields. "The Indonesian government needs to seize these opportunities," wrote Oktariadi. Renne RA Kawilarang, Elin Yunita Kristanti, Ismoko Widjaya

Internet History

In 1957 the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD = Department of Defense) formed the ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) in response to the launch of Sputnik was the Soviet Union. ARPA tasked improving technological capabilities that can be utilized by the military. ARPA carry out their duties by providing assistance and doing contract work with universities and companies that have ideas that are considered promising for its operations.

In the mid-1960s, when the peak of the Cold War, DoD wants to have command and control network that can defend themselves in case of nuclear war. To overcome this problem the DoD changed the direction of his research, ARPA. In cooperation with several universities, ARPA decided that the DoD is necessary network packet-switching shape consisting of a subnet and host computers. In December 1968, ARPA gave the contract to BBN, a consulting firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts to establish such a network and make the supporting software.Although there are still shortcomings in the software issue, in December 1969 successfully launched an experimental network connecting the four vertices of UCLA, UCSB, SRI and Utah University. ARPANET was growing rapidly soon covers the whole of the U.S. in its first three years. In addition to helping the growth of the ARPANET is still premature, the ARPA also funded research satellite network and the mobile packet radio networks.These observations are encouraging more and more research on the protocol, culminating in the discovery of the model and TCP / IP. TCP / IP is specifically designed to handle communication over internetworks, something that becomes increasingly important as more networks and LANs are connected to the ARPANET. To encourage the use of these new protocols, ARPA entered into several contracts with BBN and the University of California at Berkeley to integrate these protocols into Berkeley UNIX.In 1983, the ARPANET has a large network and it can be considered stable and successful. During the 1980's, additional networks, especially LANs, the more connected to the ARPANET. In line with the increased breadth of the network, host-even more expensive. Because it's DNS (Domain Naming System) was formed to organize machines into specific domains and map host names into IP addresses.In 1990, the ARPANET was made up by new networks, which is actually born by the ARPANET. After that ARPANET ceased operation and dismantled. Until now, MILNET still in operation.In 1984 the NSF began designing high-speed backbone network that will connect the sixth superkomputernya center in San Diego, Boulder, Champaign, Pittsburgh, Ithaca and Princeton. This network is projected as a substitute for the ARPANET and will be open to all university research groups, research laboratories, libraries and museums to access the sixth superkomputernya it and communicate with each other. This network is also connected to the ARPANET. Further NSF immediate successors network plan and give the contract to Michigan-based MERIT consortium to implement the plan. This network was eventually overwhelmed, so in 1990 the network is upgraded soon.In 1995, the NSFNET backbone no longer required to menginterkoneksikan NSF regional networks. To facilitate and assure that each regional network can communicate with other regional networks, the NSF gave contracts to four network operators to make the NAP (Network Access Point). These operators are PacBell (San Francisco), Ameritech (Chicago), MFS (Washington DC) and Sprint (New York City). Any operator who wants to provide backbone services to the NSF regional networks should connect all the NAP. In addition to NSF NAPs, has also made a variety of NAP government (eg, FIX-E, FIX-W, MAE-East and MAE-West) and the commercial NAPs (eg CIX).After TCP / IP is expressed as the only official protocol on January 1, 1983, the number of networks, machines and users are connected to the ARPANET grew rapidly. At the time of the NSFNET and the ARPANET are interconnected, the growth becomes exponential. Many are joining regional networks and relationships are made to build a network in Canada, Europe and the Pacific.In the mid-1980s, people began to see a collection of networks. Growth continues exponentially, and in 1990 the Internet has grown to 3000 and 200,000 computer networks. In 1992, the unity-million hosts are connected to the network. In 1995, there were a lot of backbone, hundreds of mid-level networks (regional), tens of thousands of LANs, millions of hosts and tens of millions of users.Until the early 1990's, the Internet is widely used by academics, government and industry researchers. A new application, the WWW (World Wide Web) changed the face of the Internet and help millions of new users, nonakademisi to the network. This application, was discovered by CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee, without changing the facilities that already exist but it makes it easier to use. Together with the Mosaic viewer, created by the NCSA (National Center for Supercomputer Applications), the WWW allows a site (site) to arrange a number of information pages that contain text, images, sounds and even video, by putting links to other pages . By clicking on a link, users will be immediately taken to a page that indicated by the link.Within a year after Mosaic was launched, the number of WWW servers grew from 100 to 7000. This rapid growth continues at a rapid pace until now.

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HISTORY DISCOVERY mercury thermometer

Since ancient times human beings trying to measure the temperature. And not just want to know the temperature of the object or the weather, but also the human body temperature. Hippocrates, for example, has realized that the human body temperature is closely relevant to human health in question. But only about 2000 years later, medical experts Santorio Santorio-repeated names, compared with Galileo Galilei, can use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the patient. It can be said, that he was the first physician to use a thermometer as a tool to help diagnose illness.

Efforts to create a tool that can measure temperature, a thermometer is a tool, arose among astronomers and a natural scientist. They know that temperature can make a substance expands. Therefore, they sought to use the size of the expansion of that material as a basis for measuring temperature. Nevertheless, measurement temperartur carefully, it is not happen easily. They need to find the right agent, proper technique, as well as measuring the scale of the right to be able to measure temperature accurately.
The air thermometer and AlcoholGalileo Galilei used to measure air expansion temperartur. Tool consists of a glass ball of chicken eggs is associated with a long pipe. Pipe was immersed in water. When the temperature changes, the air inside the glass bulb expands or shrink. These changes are recorded through the water line on the tube. The tool was created in 1593 and known as termoskop. Although the precision is still very low, but roughly this tool has been able to measure temperature.
Fellow named Galileo Santorio santorio (in Latin known as Sanctorius) was the first physician to apply a quantitative measure on the human body. In the early 17th century, from day to day, he weighed the human body weight, and found that weight loss through sweating. He also created a tool for measuring the pulse number.
In order to measure this measure, Santorio Santorio also want to measure human body temperature. For that he used termoskop Galileo by putting a glass ball into the human body. In termoskop tube, he set the scale by using the two benchmark points. The second point is the temperature benchmark snow and the temperature of a candle flame. The tool is also very meticulous.
Then Guillaume Amontons termoskop Galileo perfected. In lieu of water, he uses (water) of mercury to the air lock. The volume of air is made permanent so that the temperature measured by changes in air pressure. This Termoskop termoskop better than Galileo. With that tool, Amontons discovered that within the limits of precision tools, water boils at the same temperature. Furthermore, Amontons also studied the various types of gas expansion characteristics. At the same temperature change, he found that all gases expand by the same volume. Observations of this publication in 1699.
Nobility in Florence Tuscany, Ferdinand II, creating a better thermometer. The air in the ball is replaced with a glass of wine or alcohol. Both fixed point is the temperature in winter is the coldest and temperatures on the hottest summer. Winter temperatures and summer is not consistent. Because of that, comes the various proposals on the benchmark point.
Some are proposing the use of a single point of reference only, but some are proposing two points of the benchmark. Proposer single point of reference such as Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens, proposes freezing temperature at a certain liquid tiitk as a benchmark. Boyle, for example choosing oils from anise (aniseed). Furthermore, every degree of temperature is determined by changes in the volume of liquid that for a given volume fraction.
Proposer two benchmark points have different opinions about the two points that benchmark. Honore Fabni propose a low point at the temperature of liquid ice. However, for the high point, he still suggested that summer temperatures were erratic. Agreed about the low point, high point Delance proposed at a temperature of melting butter. In 1694, professor at Padua, Carlo Renaldini propose freezing point and boiling point of water as a second point that benchmark.
In 1701, Isaac Newton suggested a low point in the freezing temperature of water as well as the high point in human body temperature. In advance of these two points are arranged two scales.
Then making the thermometer fell to the meteorological instrument maker Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. Likely it is that Fahrenheit is driven by Herman Boerhave to make the instrument. Fahrenheit thermometer to repeat the design and use of mercury as a substance pengukurnya.
Fahrenheit and Use of ThermometersDaniel Gabriel Fahrenheit was born in Danzig, now Gdansk, Poland in 1686. Since childhood he had emigrated to Amsterdam. He entered the business education, physics and manufacturing tools as well as continue to provide a meteorological tool. After reading the history of science that tells Amotons discoveries about the boiling point of water is fixed so he pushed to create a thermometer to see the natural phenomenon in the field of temperature.
In 1708, Fahrenheit met with Ole Romer who has made some temperature scale. He tried a change of one thermometer. In 1714, Fahrenheit mercury thermometer managed to create a well-known everywhere. This thermometer is absolutely meticulous and thorough. Fahrenheit thermometer scale on even this is known as degrees Fahrenheit is still used in some countries, especially in the United States and Britain.
In 1724 Fahr reported the results of his work to the Royal Society so received in membership in that year. It soon became scale Fahr received in the UK and the Netherlands. Even then most of the country using the Celsius scale and Kelvin, Fahr still remain the first person who can create the proper thermometer.
In the health field, these thermometers are also used. Hermann Boerhave, along with his followers Gerhard van Swieten and Anton de Haen tried to link the body temperature to health. In the 15-volume book called Rati Memendi, de Haen noted the rise and fall temperatures pda pasein reply fever. In this framework, George Martine of St. Andrews that every disease has its own type of fever.
In 1762, French physician, Ballay, measure the temperature of urine pasein. James Currie of Liverpool recommends a cold shower for the patient's fever and shower set with a thermometer. Use a thermometer in the hospital became famous after the study of Karl August Wunderlich. Over the past 16 years along with his assistant, he measured the temperature more than 100 thousand patients. In 1868 his work was written in the book The Course of The Tempearture in Disease: A guide of Clinical thermometry. The thermometer also become an important tool in the diagnosis of disease.
In the year 1734, in the Philosophical Transactions, Fahr thermometer tells manufacture. Fahr said in that story, that he was influenced by the success amontons. Her story: about 10 years ago, I read in the history of science, published in the Royal Academy of Paris, that by using the thermometer of his own, the famous Amontons had discovered that water boils at a fixed level of heat. I also immediately burned by the desire to make your own thermometer was so kind with my own eyes I can see that idnah alaam symptoms and can feel confident that the truth perconaan it.
Fahr not forget tells the number of failures in his efforts: "for lack of experience in making my efforts be in vain even though I have often repeated". So he put off his business until then. But the zeal to make the thermometer did not fade and do not slack. "I always wanted to see the results of the experiment," said Fahr.
At one point Fahr remembered the barometer. Careful observers have written about the barometer correction. They have seen that the high (water) of mercury in the barometer tube was little changed at temperatures change. "From this I know that a thermometer may be made using mercury.". Fahr acknowledges that its manufacture would be very difficult. However, by using a thermometer that he is very confident he can perform experiments that are eager to do it. And it worked.
Mercury thermometer stem tube is cylindrical Fahr spherical shape replaces termoskop Galileo. In accordance with manmaya, this thermometer uses (water) of mercury as a substitute for alcohol. With the tools that, at first tried to use the temperature Fahr in Iceland and Lapland which is famous cold as the coldest temperature in the determination of benchmark point temperature scale. But then he replaced it with water mixed with salt. Freezing point of water mixed with salt is to determine the point of zero degrees on the thermometer.
After that Fahr interested in optics and other works. But three years kemduian ia kebali the thermometer and the temperature. Fahr measuring the thermal properties of various other substances. He determined what the liquid to be measured, determine the weight of its kind at a temperature of 48 degrees, and determine its boiling temperature. In his report, the listed substances such as wine, alcohol, water, rain, spirits niter, oil vitriol.
Temperature scaleAt temperatures in the thermometer scale penetuan, Fahr using two benchmark points. For the low point, he wants to find the lowest cold. He mixed the salt into the water, the freezing point of water was used as the low point. Low point was expressed sbeagai zero degrees. With saline water was Fahr wanted to avoid the negative temperatures.
As a point of the highest standards, Fahr use of human body temperature. In contrast to Newton's proposal to divide the two benchmark points into 12 sections, Fahr divide it into 8 x 12 or 96 parts. With this kind of division, he measured the boiling point of water. Then Fahr changed slightly so that the temperature scale tempertaur boiling point of water just 212 degrees. By finding that the freezing point of water is 32 degrees, amka anatara scale at the freezing point and boiling water is 180 degrees.
With this scale, Fahr found that the temperature of the human body became 98.6 degrees. Thus the temperature scale known as scale Fahr. The scale is still used in America and several other nations.
Not long after that came another temperature scale in 1730 compiled by Rene Antoine de Reamur Ferchault and is known to scale Reamur. In his experiments he used a mixture of wine and water in comparison 4 and 1. He found that the 1000 unit volume of such substances on the freezing temperature of water will develop into a 1080 unit volume at the boiling temperature of water. Therefore reamur dividing the distance from the freezing point of water to the boiling point of water into the 1080-1000 = 80 parts.
Thus, on a scale Reamur freezing point of water is zero degrees and the boiling point of water is 80 degrees. On this scale each degree is serata with changes of 1 / 1000 unit volume of that material. Until now Reamur scale is still used in some countries.
Another scale appeared in 1742. Swedish astronomer at the University of Upsala, Anders Celsius ajarak divide in advance of the freezing point and boiling point of water into 100 parts. Even this scale known as the Celsius scale or centigrade scale. At this scale the freezing point of water is zero degrees and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees.
Another scale is from William Thomson Lord Kelvin or so known as the Kelvin scale. By using the Celsius scale theoretically, Kelvin sought to determine the lowest temperature of absolute zero degrees labeled. Through the provision, the freezing point of water into kira2 273.15 degrees and 373.15 degrees the boiling point of water. The scale is accepted as the unit of temperature in the International System.
Kelvin effort to determine the degree of absolute zero can also be measured through a scale Fahr. Scale obtained in this way is known by the name of William Rankin scale Rankin.
Now the thermometer (water) mercury with high accuracy has been widely used. Besides the thermometer mercury thermometer we also know many others. Expanse that can be measured with another thermometer is very wide from a very cold temperature to very hot. Yet we are still dealing with a variety of scales and units of measurement tempertaur. There is a scale Fahr, Reamur scale, Celsius, Kelvin and Rankin Talking in various international meetings. Since then it has a lot of the benchmark standard of acceptable and amended again by the international meeting.
To measure a very wide expanse tempertur, the meeting internsioanl expanse that divides into 4 regions. Each area of ​​the temperature measured by means of a certain standard. The area between -259.74 to 630.74 degrees Celsius measured by a platinum resistance thermometer. Region between 630.74 to 1064.43 ° C was measured with a thermometer platinum-rhodium platinum per 10 cent. Areas above 1064, 43 erajat Celsius measured by optical pyrometers. There is no standard tool for measuring the temperature in the region below -259.34 degrees Celsius. Temperatures in the region measured by various measuring instruments.
For simplicity there would be nice if we all use one kind of scale and unit temperature or using an international system. We simply use the Kelvin scale. On a scale that is roughly the freezing point of water about 273 K and the boiling point of 373 K. body temperature of 310 K and mansuia sekitr room temperature 300 K.

discovery of magnetic history

Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1831. He developed an early teramatlah: at the age of fifteen years he has been able to present a scientific paper to the "Edinburgh Royal Society." He entered Edinburgh University and graduated from the University of Cambridge. Married but childless. Maxwell is generally considered the greatest theorists in the field of physics in the period between Newton and Einstein. His bright career ended too quickly because he passed away in 1879 due to attack cancer, not long after celebrating his birthday the 48.
Famous British physicist James Clerk Maxwell was well known through the formulation of four statements that describe the basic laws of electricity and magnetic. Both these areas before Maxwell was being investigated for a long time and have the same note there is a link between the two. However, despite the various laws of electricity and kemagnitan already discovered and contain the truth in some aspects, before Maxwell, none of those laws that constitute a unified theory. In he had four legal tools that are formulated in summary, Maxwell managed to describe precisely the behavior and mutual relations between electric and magnetic fields. By doing so he changed a large number of phenomena into a single theory that can be used as a handle. Opinion Maxwell has become fad in previous centuries, is widely both in theory and in practice science.
The most important value of, the new Maxwell's opinion is: a lot of general equations that can occur in all circumstances. All the laws of electric and magnetic pre-existing can be derived from Maxwell's opinion, as well as a large number of other law, which was once a theory that is not known. From Maxwell's opinion this could be shown how pergoyangan alternating electromagnetic field periodically is something that could happen. Movement back and forth like a pendulum is called electromagnetic waves, which when once driven will continue to spread outer space. From these opinions were able to show that the velocity of electromagnetic waves that reach approximately 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. Maxwell knows that this is equal to the size of the speed of light. From this angle he rightly concluded that light itself consists of electromagnetic waves.
So Maxwell's opinion not only is the basic law of electricity and kemagnitan, but also it is also the basic law of optics. Indeed, all previous law known as the law of optics can be attributed to his opinion, too many facts and relationships with the things which was not revealed. Light visible to the eye is not only the type that allows electromagnetic radiation. Opinion Maxwell showed that electromagnetic waves other, in contrast to visible light by the eye in his wavelength and frequency, could have been there. These theoretical conclusions were remarkably reinforced by the Heinrich Hertz, who could produce and meet the two waves are visible by eye was predicted by Maxwell. A few years later Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates that the wave of the invisible eye that can be used for communication without wires, so what was his name menjelmalah radio. Now we use also for television, x-rays, gamma rays, infrared rays, ultraviolet light is an example of electromagnetic radiation. All of the ideas of Maxwell.
Although Maxwell's most prominent fame lies in his mind a great contribution in the field of electromagnetic and optics, he also gave a significant contribution to world science in other terms, including the theories of astronomy and thermodynamics (heat affairs investigation). One of particular interest is the kinetic theory of gases. Maxwell realized that not all gas molecules move at the same speed. Some slow, some fast and some incredible speed. Maxwell tries to specific formulas showed the smallest molecules to move at certain speeds as well. This formula is called the "spread of Maxwell," is the formula of the most widely used in scientific formulas and contains a meaning and important benefits in every branch of physics

Discovery history stethoscope

A doctor usually using a stethoscope. With this tool, it can analyze the patient's disease of the sounds detected through the stethoscope is placed on the patient's body.
But, did you know that the tool was originally created from a difficulty? stethoscope was invented by a doctor named René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec. he found it difficult to detect heart rate of patients without the tools. For that, he rolled up the paper which is then placed on the patient's body to enlarge the sound pulse.


One time, Rene Leonardo da Vinci thought of the statement. Leonardo said that the timber can be used as media to enlarge a low voice. From that statement, he then tried to use wood to solve the difficulty hear the pulse of the patient.
Through various experiments, in 1819 Rene succeeded in creating the first generation stethoscope that is named Baton. The shape is a hollow cylindrical pipe made of wood with a length of 5.9 inches or 15 centimeters. The device is attached to the patient's body and the edges be heard at the doctor's ear. Baton form later developed into a glass or hourglass-shaped pipe with a length of 15 to 22.5 centimeters. Thanks to advances in technology, in the 19th century stethoscope was developed with rubber and aluminum.
Later, Rene invention perfected by Nicholas P Comins in 1829. He created a stethoscope that allows one to hear the pulse with both ears. This is the stethoscope that we know the present form.
Rene and Nicholas this invention can be regarded as the invention that changed the world. Therefore, the stethoscope has become a kind of tool required to analyze the patient's disease. Once again, this is evidence that the presence of difficulties, if addressed by the policy, will give birth to innovations that benefit others.
so in this stethoscope invention requires a lot of struggle, imagine if he did not find this tool. want to be like what a doctor present.
thank you,,,,,,,,,,
keep the spirit and good luck,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

History of discovery by Alfred Bernhard Nobel Dynamite

Dynamite is one of the types of bombs or explosives are very dangerous. although dangerous but more dangerous dynamite hell. hehehehehehe, want to know how the story of the origin of the dynamite which was greatly feared the emergence of this? The following story ................
Name: Alfred Bernhard Nobel Born: Stockholm, Sweden, October 21, 1833 Achievements: Founder of the Nobel Prize and Raw Materials Explosives (Dynamite) Father: Immanuel Nobel
Background Alfred was born on October 21, 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden. His father was Immanuel Nobel and his mother was Andriette Ahlsell Nobel. Alfred's father is an engineer and inventor, he built bridges, buildings, and experimenting with various ways in blasting rocks. Alfred had two older brother, namely Robert (born 1829) and Ludvig (born 1831). In the same year when Alfred was born, his father lost business and closed. In 1837, Immanuel Nobel decided to try his luck elsewhere and moved to Finland and Russia. Alfred's mother stayed in Stockholm caring for her family. Alfred's mother - who come from wealthy families - began to open grocery stores. From there he could support his family.
Move to Russia Meanwhile, businesses in St Immanuel Nobel. Petersburg, Russia began to climb. It has opened a machine shop that supplies equipment for Russian soldiers. He also made the Russian Tsar and his generals believed that sea mines can be used to repel enemy ships and attack St. Petersburg. Mines that dispels the United Kingdom entered the Navy firing range St. Petersburg during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Because success in Russia, now Immanuel could move his family to St. Louis. Petersburg (in 1842). In 1843, Andriette birth son named Emil. The son of Noble received education from a tutor. They accept a variety of subjects such as natural sciences, languages ​​and literature. At age 17, Alfred was fluent and writes in Swedish, Russian, French, English and German. Travelling abroad Alfred was very interested in the fields of language, chemistry, and physics. His father wanted to follow in his footsteps and do not appreciate the talent in the poetry of Alfred. He decided to send his son abroad to study and become a chemical engineer. In Paris, Alfred worked in the private laboratory of Professor TJ Pelouze, famous chemists. There he met the Italian chemist, Ascanio Sobrero. After the first three years, Sobrero has found nitroglycerine, a liquid high explosive, which was considered too dangerous to use. Alfred became very interested in nitroglycerine and its use in construction work. When he returned to Russia after his studies, he worked with his father to develop nitroglycerine as an explosive material that is commercially and technically useful.
Back to Sweden After the Crimean War ended, Alfred's father's business he decided to resign and return to Sweden. Second brother Alfred, Robert and Ludvig, stayed in Russia to try to manage the family business heritage. They succeed and continue to develop the oil industry in southern Russia. After the return of the Nobel family to Sweden 1863, Alfred concentrate developing nitroglycerine as an explosive. Unfortunately, this experiment led to the disaster which killed several people including his brother, Emil. The Swedish government decided to ban this experiment in Stockholm city limits. Alfred did not stop and continued his experiments on a barge on Lake Mälaren. In 1864, he could begin mass production of nitroglycerin, but he did not stop the experiment with a variety of additional materials to secure production. The inventor of dynamite Alfred finds his experiments-that-through a mixture of nitroglycerin with kieselguhr fine soil will change the liquid into a paste that can be formed into the shaft, which then included in the drill hole. This discovery occurred in 1866. Alfred obtain a patent on this material the following year. He called it dynamite. He also found a detonator or blasting cap that can be lit with the light axis. This discovery was made while wearing the crown of the diamond drill and drill the wind started to be used in general. Used together, the discoveries that help reduce the losses a lot of construction work such as drilling channels, rock blasting, bridge construction, and so forth. Factories in many places Dynamite and detonator cap behavior in the construction industry. Therefore, Alfred can build factories in 90 different places. He lived in Paris but often travel to factories in more than 20 countries. He once described as "Europe's richest vagabond". He worked intensively in San Remo (Italy), Hamburg (Germany), Ardeer (Scotland), Paris and Sevran (France), Karlskoga and Stockholm (Sweden). He also tried to make rubber and synthetic leather and artificial silk. In addition, he also makes gelatin, balistit, artificial gemstones, and others. Until his death in 1896, he has obtained 355 patents Bertha von Suttner Alfred never married. One day, he announced in newspapers to recruit a secretary. Women Austria-Hungary which Bertha Kinsky von und Chinic Tettau take the job. After working in a short time, he returned to Austria to marry Prince Arthur von Suttner. Alfred and Bertha Sophie Felicitas Baronin von Suttner became permanent friends and corresponded for years. Berthapun active in peace movements. He wrote a book Dispose of your weapon. When writing his will to establish the Nobel Prizes, Alfred Nobel prizes for entering the body or individuals who promote peace Death and the Nobel Prize Alfred died in San Remo, Italy on December 10, 1896. In his last will and testament, he wrote that a lot of wealth can be used to give prizes to those who have made humanitarian efforts in the field of physics, chemistry, literature, peace, physiology and medicine. Not everyone likes this. His relatives contested his will and questioned by authorities in several countries, and takes four years for supervisors to convince all parties to meet the expectations of Alfred. In 1901, the first Nobel prize in physics, chemistry, literature, physiology and medicine were distributed in Stockholm, Sweden and the Nobel Peace Prize in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway Nobel Discovery Benefits 1. Explosives are very useful in the manufacture of dynamite to the defense of each State. 2. The raw material of dynamite can also be used in the manufacture of weapons by a certain type. 3. The use of explosives such as dynamite useful in blasting rocks and mining. 4. Nobel discovery is what led to the birth of more terrible series of explosive that is nuclear. 5. Is pioneering the creation of a tool - a useful tool for humans, for example korekapi. 6. Kegiantanya can help people in everyday situations, for military troops explosives just to cut steel or wood, the destruction of enemy forces or mobilization of troops and other sabotage. 7. Negative impact from Nobel discovery 1. Misuse of explosives, causing loss 2. The emergence of the terrorists who use explosives to bomb the interest group with an area of ​​enemy. 3. The emergence of various wars that use explosives 4. Timbunya criminal cases who use firearms 5. Environmental damage, especially if used to bomb fish, coral reef ecosystem is damaged. 6. If there was an explosion, the effect will stay in that area so would disrupt the balance of nature. The impact of the discovery is so dangerous that the Nobel laureate gave all his property to world peace and the Nobel prize as his guilt.
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History of Money

Cultural interaction in human civilization has created an instrument that very important role, both as a means of communication, transaction, or the recognition of one's social status, namely money. Since its presence in human civilization, money has played a major role dalammengubah human cultural behavior, and even contributed to the collapse of the feudal system and the hierarchy of aristocracy as it grows in Greek and Roman era.
The reality is, money which was originally intended to function as a medium of exchange and a standard unit of value turned out to have an impact on human culture focus when the money was applied as a property that determines a person's dignity in the community. In its history, role and functions of money has grown rapidly, without knowing boundaries, race, nation and state so that the money has contributed an important part in the process of global development of human civilization. Perhaps caused by this, Aphra Behn, a seventeenth-century playwright wrote in his book The Rover (1677)? Money speaks in a language understood by all nations? (Page xxxi).
Money has been known since hundreds of years ago, as well as natives in the interior of the continent of Africa Bandiagara to exchange their agricultural products, from sebakul tomatoes with a number of daily needs, milk, wheat and the like. Transactions are initially conducted in barter, and then developed by using a medium of exchange that erbuat from crops like cocoa the like (known as commodity money). Gradually the instrument was turned into a medium of exchange is made of hard objects, such as stone and metal. From this discovery dapatdipahami that human recognition of the money was a process that berakulturasi single culture, namely the creation process of imitation of one tribe to another tribe without any claim of copyright because they realize that money is created by the media of economic interaction among nations with? Language? easily standardized.The functioning of the commodity as a medium of exchange, is the familiar currency in early human civilization. Means to pay these commodities can serve a twofold purpose, such as chocolate which functioned as a medium of exchange of high value, then the circulation of these commodities increased in intensity. However, when the declining role of commodities, then the holder the greater utilization of fruit consumption of chocolate as an ingredient. The use of gold and silver as money in the form of coins were created by Croesus in Greece around 560-546 BC. Simultaneously, the medium of money that serves as instruments means to pay, mulaidikembangkan, made from a variety of other solid objects sepertitembikar, ceramic or bronze.
Jachymod Villages in the Czech Republic, Eastern Europe, regarded as the first region using a currency called the dollar, which is the most popular currency in the modern age, appeared at the end of the 19th century. Initially called Taler, then the Italians spell it Tallero, Dutch tongue says Daler, Hawaii dala, in the dialect of English is disclosed as a dollar. Embryos of dollars made from raw material silver and gold coins of natural forms, whose use is growing in many countries or states. Indeed Taler itself is evolving as the currency in mainland Europe since the 16th century, whose fruits are more than 1500, but in modern civilization, each nation or the state create a separate designation for its currency to show an independent status.
In the history of the use of paper as the material of money, China is considered as the first nation to find it, which is around the first century AD, during the dynasty of T? Ang. In the modern age, Benjamin Franklin (United States) is determined as the father because he Banknotes of the first printing of paper dollars, which was originally used to finance the war for independence the United States. As a tribute government of Benjamin Franklin, his portrait enshrined in the sheet's largest denomination dollar (U.S. $ 100). On his way, the use of paper money as an attribute and simbolsebuah developing countries. But as the guarantee of state responsible for its circulation, the amount of paper money issued is always associated with the amount of gold reserves held by the country concerned. Around the year 1976, the dependence of printing paper money is no longer linked to gold reserves, but allowed to roll and dive into the free market to face the law of supply and demand as the economy grew in the law.
Thus, money growth rate can not be separated from the cultural and intellectual innovation that grew out of man. Money has become the focus of modern world culture, so that money is not only defined as an instrument of payment between consumers and traders, workers and employers, but the limits of his understanding had entered the territory of all human life, ranging from the common people until the government officials with each of his profession. These days money is no longer translated as berhargasebagaimana letter sheets stored in a vault, but the money has been manipulated in the form of plastic card that can accumulate in a person's ability to fulfill payment obligations. In modern civilization, the invention of plastic money that is represented in the form of cards, fashion and trends have become familiar in everyday life. The question is whether the innovation creation of the currency will remain progressive in the future. Will happen in time, the role of money will be replaced by fingerprint. The answer is innovation and human intellectual progress can not be inhibited by time, because the source of knowledge is always open without doors.
The book, written by Jack Weatherford and translated either by Noor Cholis, explaining the development of money through three phases, namely, Phase I Cash Classic, Phase II, Phase III Paper Money and Electronic Money. Although it is not? Law books?, But this book is still interesting for enthusiasts Banking Law and central banking, mainly because bahasannya give another insight, because penuturannya not solely concentrated on the economic side, which become? Cage? development of the function and role of money, but instead set forth in the historical cultural role by providing illustrations of money in the middle of rural society and modern society. Viewed from the side of culture, between the simple life of rural communities throughout rural and modern society living in urban luxury living building in a complex economic activity and surrounded by sophisticated technology, the role and functions of money are basically no different. Differentiation lies only in terms of quantitative rather than qualitative.